Saturday 7 May 2011

FEATURES,USES,LIMITATIONS OF MICRO-ECONOMICS


Features / Characteristics of Micro Economics ↓


Classical economists always insisted on micro economics because they believed that it is better to understand concept at individual level and then go for general (or macro) level. E.g. first understanding individual consumer behaviour and then analyzing the behaviour of entire market.
  

1. Nature of Analysis


In micro economics, the behaviour of individual consumers and producers in detail is analysed. It is study of subject matter from particular to general.

2. Method


Micro economics divides the economy into various small units and every unit is analysed in detail. It is a slicing method.

3. Scope


Micro economic analysis involves product pricing, factor pricing and theory of welfare.

4. Application


Both theoretically and practically, micro economics is useful in formulating various policies, resource allocation, public finance, international trade, etc.

5. Nature of Assumptions


Assumption of Ceteris Paribus is always made in every micro economic theory. It means theory is applicable only when 'other things being same'.

squareUses / Importance / Advantages - Micro Economics


     

1. Individual Behaviour Analysis


Micro economics studies behaviour of individual consumer or producer in a particular situation.

2. Resource Allocation


Resources are already scare i.e less in quantity. Micro economics helps in proper allocation and utilization of resources to produce various types of goods and services.

3. Price Mechanization


Micro economics decides prices of various goods and services on the basis of 'Demand-Supply Analysis'.

4. Economic Policy


Micro economics helps in formulating various economic policies and economic plans to promote all round economic development.

5. Free Enterprise Economy


Micro economics explain operating of a free enterprise economy where individual has freedom to take his own economic decisions.

6. Public Finance


It helps the government in fixing the tax rate and the type of tax as well as the amount of tax to be charged to the buyer and the seller.

7. Foreign Trade


It helps in explaining and fixing international trade and tariff rules, causes of disequilibrium in BOP, effects of factors deciding exchange rate, etc.

8. Social Welfare


It not only analyse economic conditions but also studies the social needs under different market conditions like monopoly, oligopoly, etc.

squareLimitations / Disadvantages of Micro Economics ↓



1. Unrealistic Assumptions


Micro economics is based on unrealistic assumptions, especially in case of full employment assumption which does not exist practically. Even behaviour of one individual can not be generalised as the behaviour of all.

2. Inadequate Data


Micro economics is based on the information dealing with individual behaviour, individual customers. Hence, it is difficult to get correct information. So because of incorrect data Micro Economics may provide inaccurate results.

3. Ceteris Paribus


It assumes that all other things being equal (same) but actually it is not so.

SCOPE OF MICRO-ECONOMICS


                             


Commodity Pricing


Prices of individual commodities are determined by market forces of demand and supply. So micro economics makes demand analysis (individual consumer behaviour) and supply analysis (individual producer behaviour).

 Factor Pricing


Land, labour, capital and entrepreneur, all factors contribute in production process. So they get rewards in the form of rent, wages, interest and profit respectively. Micro economics deals with determination of such rewards i.e. factor prices. So micro economics is also called as 'Price Theory' or 'Value Theory'.

 Welfare Theory


Micro economics deals with optimum allocation of available resources and maximisation of social welfare. It provides answers for 'What to produce?', 'When to produce?', 'How to produce?' and 'For whom it is to be produced?'. In short, Micro economics guides for utilizing scarce resources of economy to maximize public welfare.

DEFINITION OF MICRO-ECONOMICS

Study of the economic behavior of individual units of aneconomy (such as a personhouseholdfirm, or industry) and not of the aggregate economy (which is the domain ofmacroeconomics). Microeconomics is primarily concerned with the factors that affect individual economic choices, theeffect of changes in these factors on the individual decisionmakers, how their choices are coordinated by markets, and how prices and demand are determined in individual markets. The main subjects covered under microeconomicsinclude theory of demand, theory of the firm, and demand for labor and other factors of production.



Micro means small. Thus, micro economics analyses individualistic behaviour. It studies an individual consumer, producer, price of a particular commodity, household, etc.
According to Prof. K. E. Boulding, "Micro Economics is the study of particular firm, particular household, individual prices, wages, incomes, individual industries and particular commodities."

DEFINITION OF PERCEPTION


What Is Perception And How Does It Occur?

What is the definition of perception? Think of it as the process of becoming aware of the world around you through your senses.
Your senses play a critical role in perception and behavior. They not only allow you to perceive your environment, they also enable you to act in response to it.
Sensation and perception psychology is one of the oldest fields of study in social psychology. Below I'm going to take you through the process we go through to become aware of anything in our environments.

The Definition Of Perception: The Sensing Process

Perception happens in one of five ways:
  • You see something with your eyes
  • Smell something with your nose
  • Hear something with your ears
  • Feel something with your skin
  • Taste something on your tongue 
Because there is an overabundance of stimulation hitting your senses in every moment, most sensations will be filtered out. This is why only a fraction of your surrounding environment will ever reach your conscious awareness.




Perception is the process by which organisms interpret and organize sensation to produce a meaningful experience of the world. Sensation usually refers to the immediate, relatively unprocessed result of stimulation of sensory receptors in the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, or skin. Perception, on the other hand, better describes one's ultimate experience of the world and typically involves further processing of sensory input. In practice, sensation and perception are virtually impossible to separate, because they are part of one continuous process.
Thus, perception in humans describes the process whereby sensory stimulation is translated into organized experience. That experience, or percept, is the joint product of the stimulation and of the process itself. Relations found between various types of stimulation (e.g., light waves and sound waves) and their associated percepts suggest inferences that can be made about the properties of the perceptual process; theories of perceiving then can be developed on the basis of these inferences. Because the perceptual process is not itself public or directly observable (except to the perceiver himself, whose percepts are given directly in experience), the validity of perceptual theories can be checked only indirectly

MEANING OF PERCEPTION

Perceptions vary from person to person. Different people perceive different things about the same situation. But more than that, we assign different meanings to what we perceive. And the meanings might change for a certain person. One might change one's perspective or simply make things mean something else.
This is a famous picture. What does it look like to you?

Some people see a young lady looking away. Others see an old lady looking down. Depending on how you look at it, part of the picture might be the young woman's nose and eyelash, or it might be a wart on the old woman's nose. What is the young woman's ear might be the old woman's eye. What is the young woman's necklace might be the old woman's mouth. The picture hasn't really changed. You just emphasize different parts of it and assign them different meaning.
Look at these two arrows. Which horizontal line is the longest?

They are exactly the same size. However the top one looks longer than the bottom one. It is on optical illusion tricking us into assigning a different meaning to what we see.
We fill in a lot of blanks with our minds. If we have incomplete perceptions, which we practically always do to a certain extent, our minds fill in the rest. 
Are those letters? Or are they just lines and blotches on the paper? How do you know?




Do you see a vase or do you see two faces looking at each other?
The meaning of something will change when you look at it differently. You can look at anything differently and it will have a different meaning.
There is no fixed meaning to anything. You can always change perspectives and change meanings. Why not change them to what you prefer them to be? 

FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT



                                                     
                                      
Management has been described as a social process involving 
responsibility for economical and effective planning & 
regulation of operation of an enterprise in the fulfillment of 
given purposes. It is a dynamic process consisting of various 
elements and activities. These activities are different from
 operative functions like marketing, finance, purchase etc. 
Rather these activities are common to each and every manger
 irrespective of his level or status.

Management is creative problem solving. This creative problem
 solving is accomplished through four functions of management:
 planning, organizing, leading and controlling. The intended 
result is the use of an organization's resources in a way that 
accomplishes its mission and objectives. 
In Management Excel, this standard definition is modified to 
align more closely with our teaching objectives and to 
communicate more clearly the content of the organizing 
function. Organizing is divided into organizing and staffing so 
that the importance of staffing in small businesses receives 
emphasis along side organizing. In the management literature, 
directing and leading are used interchangeably


Different experts have classified functions of management. 
According to George & Jerry, “There are four fundamental 
functions of management i.e. planning, organizing, actuating 
and controlling”. According to Henry Fayol, “To manage is to 
forecast and plan, to organize, to command, & to control”. 
Whereas Luther Gullick has given a keyword ’POSDCORB’ 
where P stands for Planning, O for Organizing, S for Staffing, 
D for Directing, Co for Co-ordination, R for reporting & B for 
Budgeting. But the most widely accepted are functions of 
management given by KOONTZ and O’DONNEL i.e. Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling.


  1. PLANNING
  2. It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking  out a future course of action & deciding in advance the most  appropriate course of actions for achievement of  pre-determined goals. According to KOONTZ, “Planning is  deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how to do. It  bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be”.  A plan is a future course of actions. It is an exercise in  problem solving & decision making. Planning is  determination of courses of action to achieve desired goals.  Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means  for accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Planning is  necessary to ensure proper utilization of human &  non-human resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual  activity and it a also helps in avoiding confusion,  uncertainties, risks, w                                 
    • Planning is decision making process.
    • It is making decisions on future course of actions.
    • Planning involves taking decisions on vision, mission, 
    • values, objectives, strategies and policies of an 
    • organization.
    • Planning is done for immediate, short term, medium 
    • term and long term periods.
    • It is a guideline for execution/implementation.
    • It is a measure to check the effectiveness and efficiency 
    • of an organization.
  3. ORGANISING
  4. It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and  human resources and developing productive relationship  amongst them for achievement of organizational goals.  According to Henry Fayol, “To organize a business is to  provide it with everything useful or its functioning i.e. raw  material, tools, capital and personnel’s”. To organize a  business involves determining & providing human and  non-human resources to the organizational structure.             
    • Identification of activities.
    • Classification of grouping of activities.
    • Assignment of duties.
    • Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.
    • Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.
    • Organizing involves determination and grouping of the activities.
    • Designing organization structures and departmentation based on this grouping.
    • Defining the roles and responsibilities of the departments and of the job positions within these departments.
    • Defining relationships between departments and job positions.
    • Defining authorities for departments and job positions.
  5. STAFFING
  6. It is the function of manning the organization structure and  keeping it manned. Staffing has assumed greater importance in  the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in  size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main  purpose o staffing is to put right man on right job i.e. square pegs  in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to  Kootz & O’Donell, “Managerial function of staffing involves  manning the organization structure through proper and effective  selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles  designed un the structure”. Staffing involves MANPOWER  PLANNING                       
    • Recruitment, selection & placement.
    • Training & development.
    • Remuneration.
    • Performance appraisal.
    • Promotions & transfer.
    • It includes manpower or human resource planning.
    • Staffing involves recruitment, selection, induction and positioning the people in the organization.
    • Decisions on remuneration packages are part of staffing.
    • Training, retraining, development, mentoring and counseling are important aspects of staffing.
    • It also includes performance appraisals and designing and administering the motivational packages.
  7. DIRECTING
  8. It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:                                      
    • Supervision
    • Motivation
    • Leadership
    • Communication
    Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by  their superiors. It is the act of watching & directing work &  workers.
    Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the  sub-ordinates with zeal to work. Positive, negative,  monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this  purpose.
    Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager  guides and influences the work of subordinates in desired  direction.
    Communications- is the process of passing information,  experience, opinion etc from one person to another. It is a  bridge of understanding.
    • It is one of the most important functions of management to translate company's plans into execution.
    • It includes providing leadership to people so that they work willingly and enthusiastically.
    • Directing people involves motivating them all the time to enthuse them to give their best.
    • Communicating companies plans throughout the organization is an important directing activity.
    • It also means coordinating various people and their activities.
    • Directing aims at achieving the best not just out of an individual but achieving the best through the groups or teams of people through team building efforts.
  9. CONTROLLING
  10. It implies measurement of accomplishment against the  standards and correction of deviation if any to ensure  achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of  controlling is to ensure that everything occurs in  conformities with the standards. An efficient system of  control helps to predict deviations before they actually  occur. According to Theo Haimann, “Controlling is the  process of checking whether  or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and  goals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation”.  According to Koontz & O’Donell “Controlling is the  measurement & correction of performance activities of  subordinates in order to make  sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to  obtain them as being accomplished”. Therefore controlling  has following steps                                
    1. Establishment of standard performance.
    2. Measurement of actual performance.
    3. Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if any.
    4. Corrective action
    5. It includes verifying the actual execution against the plans to ensure that execution is being done in accordance with the plans.
    6. It measures actual performance against the plans.
    7. It sets standards or norms of performance.
    8. It measures the effective and efficiency of execution against these standards and the plans.
    9. It periodically reviews, evaluates and monitors the performance.
    10. If the gaps are found between execution levels and the plans, controlling function involves suitable corrective actions to expedite the execution to match up with the plans or in certain circumstances deciding to make modifications in the plans.

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